Publication 544
Sales and Other Dispositions of Assets

For use in preparing 2002 Returns

Nontaxable Exchanges

Certain exchanges of property are not taxable. This means any gain from the exchange is not recognized, and any loss cannot be deducted. Your gain or loss will not be recognized until you sell or otherwise dispose of the property you receive.

Like-Kind Exchanges

The exchange of property for the same kind of property is the most common type of nontaxable exchange. To be a like-kind exchange, the property traded and the property received must be both of the following.

• Qualifying property.
• Like-kind property.

These two requirements are discussed later.

Additional requirements apply to exchanges in which the property received is not received immediately upon the transfer of the property given up. See Deferred Exchange, later.

If the like-kind exchange involves the receipt of money or unlike property or the assumption of your liabilities, you may have to recognize gain. See Partially Nontaxable Exchanges, later.

Multiple-party transactions.   The like-kind exchange rules also apply to property exchanges that involve three- and four-party transactions. Any part of these multiple-party transactions can qualify as a like-kind exchange if it meets all the requirements described in this section.

Receipt of title from third party.   If you receive property in a like-kind exchange and the other party who transfers the property to you does not give you the title, but a third party does, you still can treat this transaction as a like-kind exchange if it meets all the requirements.

Basis of property received.   If you acquire property in a like-kind exchange, the basis of that property is the same as the basis of the property you transferred.

For the basis of property received in an exchange that is only partially nontaxable, see Partially Nontaxable Exchanges, later.

Example.   You exchanged real estate held for investment with an adjusted basis of $25,000 for other real estate held for investment. The fair market value of both properties is $50,000. The basis of your new property is the same as the basis of the old ($25,000).

Money paid.   If, in addition to giving up like-kind property, you pay money in a like-kind exchange, you still have no recognized gain or loss. The basis of the property received is the basis of the property given up, increased by the money paid.

Example.   Bill Smith trades an old cab for a new one. The new cab costs $30,000. He is allowed $8,000 for the old cab and pays $22,000 cash. He has no recognized gain or loss on the transaction regardless of the adjusted basis of his old cab. If Bill sold the old cab to a third party for $8,000 and bought a new one, he would have a recognized gain or loss on the sale of his old cab equal to the difference between the amount realized and the adjusted basis of the old cab.

Sale and purchase.   If you sell property and buy similar property in two mutually dependent transactions, you may have to treat the sale and purchase as a single nontaxable exchange.

Example.   You used your car in your business for 2 years. Its adjusted basis is $3,500 and its trade-in value is $4,500. You are interested in a new car that costs $20,000. Ordinarily, you would trade your old car for the new one and pay the dealer $15,500. Your basis for depreciation of the new car would then be $19,000 ($15,500 plus $3,500 adjusted basis of the old car).

You want your new car to have a larger basis for depreciation, so you arrange to sell your old car to the dealer for $4,500. You then buy the new one for $20,000 from the same dealer. However, you are treated as having exchanged your old car for the new one because the sale and purchase are reciprocal and mutually dependent. Your basis for depreciation for the new car is $19,000, the same as if you traded the old car.

Reporting the exchange.   Report the exchange of like-kind property, even though no gain or loss is recognized, on Form 8824. The instructions for the form explain how to report the details of the exchange.

If you have any recognized gain because you received money or unlike property, report it on Schedule D (Form 1040) or Form 4797, whichever applies. See chapter 4. You may have to report the recognized gain as ordinary income from depreciation recapture. See Like-Kind Exchanges and Involuntary Conversions in chapter 3.

Exchange expenses.   Exchange expenses are generally the closing costs you pay. They include such items as brokerage commissions, attorney fees, and deed preparation fees. Subtract these expenses from the consideration received to figure the amount realized on the exchange. Also, add them to the basis of the like-kind property received. If you receive cash or unlike property in addition to the like-kind property and realize a gain on the exchange, subtract the expenses from the cash or fair market value of the unlike property. Then, use the net amount to figure the recognized gain. See Partially Nontaxable Exchanges, later.

Qualifying Property

In a like-kind exchange, both the property you give up and the property you receive must be held by you for investment or for productive use in your trade or business. Machinery, buildings, land, trucks, and rental houses are examples of property that may qualify.

The rules for like-kind exchanges do not apply to exchanges of the following property.

• Property you use for personal purposes, such as your home and your family car.
• Stock in trade or other property held primarily for sale, such as inventories, raw materials, and real estate held by dealers.
• Stocks, bonds, notes, or other securities or evidences of indebtedness, such as accounts receivable.
• Partnership interests.
• Certificates of trust or beneficial interest.
• Choses in action.

However, you might have a nontaxable exchange under other rules. See Other Nontaxable Exchanges, later.

An exchange of the assets of a business for the assets of a similar business cannot be treated as an exchange of one property for another property. Whether you engaged in a like-kind exchange depends on an analysis of each asset involved in the exchange. However, see Multiple Property Exchanges, later.

Like-Kind Property

There must be an exchange of like-kind property. Like-kind properties are properties of the same nature or character, even if they differ in grade or quality. The exchange of real estate for real estate and the exchange of personal property for similar personal property are exchanges of like-kind property. For example, the trade of land improved with an apartment house for land improved with a store building, or a panel truck for a pickup truck, is a like-kind exchange.

An exchange of personal property for real property does not qualify as a like-kind exchange. For example, an exchange of a piece of machinery for a store building does not qualify. Nor does the exchange of livestock of different sexes qualify.

Real property.   An exchange of city property for farm property, or improved property for unimproved property, is a like-kind exchange.

The exchange of real estate you own for a real estate lease that runs 30 years or longer is a like-kind exchange. However, not all exchanges of interests in real property qualify. The exchange of a life estate expected to last less than 30 years for a remainder interest is not a like-kind exchange.

An exchange of a remainder interest in real estate for a remainder interest in other real estate is a like-kind exchange if the nature or character of the two property interests is the same.

Foreign real property exchanges.   Real property located in the United States and real property located outside the United States are not considered like-kind property under the like-kind exchange rules. If you exchange foreign real property for property located in the United States, your gain or loss on the exchange is recognized. Foreign real property is real property not located in a state or the District of Columbia.

This foreign real property exchange rule does not apply to the replacement of condemned real property. Foreign and U.S. real property can still be considered like-kind property under the rules for replacing condemned property to postpone reporting gain on the condemnation. See Postponement of Gain under Involuntary Conversions, earlier.

Personal property.   Depreciable tangible personal property can be either like kind or like class to qualify for nonrecognition treatment. Like-class properties are depreciable tangible personal properties within the same General Asset Class or Product Class. Property classified in any General Asset Class may not be classified within a Product Class.

General Asset Classes.   General Asset Classes describe the types of property frequently used in many businesses. They include the following property.

1. Office furniture, fixtures, and equipment (asset class 00.11).
2. Information systems, such as computers and peripheral equipment (asset class 00.12).
3. Data handling equipment except computers (asset class 00.13).
4. Airplanes (airframes and engines), except planes used in commercial or contract carrying of passengers or freight, and all helicopters (airframes and engines) (asset class 00.21).
5. Automobiles and taxis (asset class 00.22).
6. Buses (asset class 00.23).
7. Light general purpose trucks (asset class 00.241).
8. Heavy general purpose trucks (asset class 00.242).
9. Railroad cars and locomotives except those owned by railroad transportation companies (asset class 00.25).
10. Tractor units for use over the road (asset class 00.26).
11. Trailers and trailer-mounted containers (asset class 00.27).
12. Vessels, barges, tugs, and similar water-transportation equipment, except those used in marine construction (asset class 00.28).
13. Industrial steam and electric generation or distribution systems (asset class 00.4).

Product Classes.   Product Classes include property listed in a 4-digit product class (except any ending in 9, a miscellaneous category) in Division D of the Standard Industrial Classification codes of the Executive Office of the President, Office of Management and Budget, Standard Industrial Classification Manual (SIC Manual). Copies of the manual may be obtained from the National Technical Information Service, an agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce. To order the manual, call the National Technical Information Service at 1-800-553-NTIS (1-800-553-6847). The cost of the manual is $39 and the order number is PB87-100012.

Example 1.   You transfer a personal computer used in your business for a printer to be used in your business. The properties exchanged are within the same General Asset Class and are of a like class.

Example 2.   Trena transfers a grader to Ron in exchange for a scraper. Both are used in a business. Neither property is within any of the General Asset Classes. Both properties, however, are within the same Product Class and are of a like class.

Intangible personal property and nondepreciable personal property.   If you exchange intangible personal property or nondepreciable personal property for like-kind property, no gain or loss is recognized on the exchange. (There are no like classes for these properties.) Whether intangible personal property, such as a patent or copyright, is of a like kind to other intangible personal property generally depends on the nature or character of the rights involved. It also depends on the nature or character of the underlying property to which those rights relate.

Example.   The exchange of a copyright on a novel for a copyright on a different novel can qualify as a like-kind exchange. However, the exchange of a copyright on a novel for a copyright on a song is not a like-kind exchange.

Goodwill and going concern.   The exchange of the goodwill or going concern value of a business for the goodwill or going concern value of another business is not a like-kind exchange.

Foreign personal property exchanges.   Personal property used predominantly in the United States and personal property used predominantly outside the United States are not like-kind property under the like-kind exchange rules. If you exchange property used predominantly in the United States for property used predominantly outside the United States, your gain or loss on the exchange is recognized.

Predominant use.   You determine the predominant use of property you gave up based on where that property was used during the 2-year period ending on the date you gave it up. You determine the predominant use of the property you acquired based on where that property was used during the 2-year period beginning on the date you acquired it.

But if you held either property less than 2 years, determine its predominant use based on where that property was used only during the period of time you (or a related person) held it. This does not apply if the exchange is part of a transaction (or series of transactions) structured to avoid having to treat property as unlike property under this rule.

However, you must treat property as used predominantly in the United States if it is used outside the United States but, under section 168(g)(4) of the Internal Revenue Code, is eligible for accelerated depreciation as though used in the United States.

Deferred Exchange

A deferred exchange is one in which you transfer property you use in business or hold for investment and later you receive like-kind property you will use in business or hold for investment. (The property you receive is replacement property.) The transaction must be an exchange (that is, property for property) rather than a transfer of property for money used to buy replacement property.

If, before you receive the replacement property, you actually or constructively receive money or unlike property in full payment for the property you transfer, the transaction will be treated as a sale rather than a deferred exchange. In that case, you must recognize gain or loss on the transaction, even if you later receive the replacement property. (It would be treated as if you bought it.)

You constructively receive money or unlike property when the money or property is credited to your account or made available to you. You also constructively receive money or unlike property when any limits or restrictions on it expire or are waived.

Whether you actually or constructively receive money or unlike property, however, is determined without regard to certain arrangements you make to ensure that the other party carries out its obligation to transfer the replacement property to you. For example, if you have that obligation secured by a mortgage or by cash or its equivalent held in a qualified escrow account or qualified trust, that arrangement will be disregarded in determining whether you actually or constructively receive money or unlike property. For more information, see section 1.1031(k)-1(g) of the regulations. Also, see Like-Kind Exchanges Using Qualified Intermediaries, later.

Identification requirement.   You must identify the property to be received within 45 days after the date you transfer the property given up in the exchange. This period of time is called the identification period. Any property received during the identification period is considered to have been identified.

If you transfer more than one property (as part of the same transaction) and the properties are transferred on different dates, the identification period and the receipt period begin on the date of the earliest transfer.

Identifying replacement property.   You must identify the replacement property in a signed written document and deliver it to the other person involved in the exchange. You must clearly describe the replacement property in the written document. For example, use the legal description or street address for real property and the make, model, and year for a car. In the same manner, you can cancel an identification of replacement property at any time before the end of the identification period.

Identifying alternative and multiple properties.   You can identify more than one replacement property. Regardless of the number of properties you give up, the maximum number of replacement properties you can identify is the larger of the following.

• Three.
• Any number of properties whose total fair market value (FMV) at the end of the identification period is not more than double the total fair market value, on the date of transfer, of all properties you give up.

If, as of the end of the identification period, you have identified more properties than permitted under this rule, the only property that will be considered identified is:

• Any replacement property you received before the end of the identification period, and
• Any replacement property identified before the end of the identification period and received before the end of the receipt period, but only if the fair market value of the property is at least 95% of the total fair market value of all identified replacement properties. (Do not include any you canceled.) Fair market value is determined on the earlier of the date you received the property or the last day of the receipt period.

Disregard incidental property.   Do not treat property incidental to a larger item of property as separate from the larger item when you identify replacement property. Property is incidental if it meets both the following tests.

• It is typically transferred with the larger item.
• The total fair market value of all the incidental property is not more than 15% of the total fair market value of the larger item of property.

Replacement property to be produced.   Gain or loss from a deferred exchange can qualify for nonrecognition even if the replacement property is not in existence or is being produced at the time you identify it as replacement property. If you need to know the fair market value of the replacement property to identify it, estimate its fair market value as of the date you expect to receive it.

Receipt requirement.   The property must be received by the earlier of the following dates.

• The 180th day after the date on which you transfer the property given up in the exchange.
• The due date, including extensions, for your tax return for the tax year in which the transfer of the property given up occurs.

You must receive substantially the same property that met the identification requirement, discussed earlier.

Replacement property produced after identification.   In some cases, the replacement property may have been produced after you identified it (as described earlier in Replacement property to be produced. In that case, to determine whether the property you received was substantially the same property that met the identification requirement, do not take into account any variations due to usual production changes. Substantial changes in the property to be produced, however, will disqualify it.

If your replacement property is personal property that had to be produced, it must be completed by the date you receive it to qualify as substantially the same property you identified.

If your replacement property is real property that had to be produced and it is not completed by the date you receive it, it still may qualify as substantially the same property you identified. It will qualify only if, had it been completed on time, it would have been considered to be substantially the same property you identified. It is considered to be substantially the same only to the extent it is considered real property under local law. However, any additional production on the replacement property after you receive it does not qualify as like-kind property. (To this extent, the transaction is treated as a taxable exchange of property for services.)

Like-Kind Exchanges
Using Qualified Intermediaries

If you transfer property through a qualified intermediary, the transfer of the property given up and receipt of like-kind property is treated as an exchange. This rule applies even if you receive money or other property directly from a party to the transaction other than the qualified intermediary.

A qualified intermediary is a person who enters into a written exchange agreement with you to acquire and transfer the property you give up and to acquire the replacement property and transfer it to you. This agreement must expressly limit your rights to receive, pledge, borrow, or otherwise obtain the benefits of money or other property held by the qualified intermediary.

A qualified intermediary cannot be either of the following.

• Your agent at the time of the transaction. This includes a person who has been your employee, attorney, accountant, investment banker or broker, or real estate agent or broker within the 2-year period before the transfer of property you give up.
• A person who is related to you or your agent under the rules discussed in chapter 2 under Nondeductible Loss, substituting 10% for 50%.

An intermediary is treated as acquiring and transferring property if all the following requirements are met.

• The intermediary acquires and transfers legal title to the property.
• The intermediary enters into an agreement with a person other than you for the transfer to that person of the property you give up and that property is transferred to that person.
• The intermediary enters into an agreement with the owner of the replacement property for the transfer of that property and the replacement property is transferred to you.

An intermediary is treated as entering into an agreement if the rights of a party to the agreement are assigned to the intermediary and all parties to that agreement are notified in writing of the assignment by the date of the relevant transfer of property.

Like-Kind Exchanges Using Qualified Exchange Accommodation Arrangements (QEAAs)

The like-kind exchange rules generally do not apply to an exchange in which you acquire replacement property (new property) before you transfer relinquished property (property you give up). However, if you use a qualified exchange accommodation arrangement (QEAA), the transfer may qualify as a like-kind exchange.

Under a QEAA, either the replacement property or the relinquished property is transferred to an exchange accommodation titleholder (EAT), discussed later, who is treated as the beneficial owner of the property for federal income tax purposes. If the property is held in a QEAA, the IRS will accept the qualification of property as either replacement property or relinquished property and the treatment of an EAT as the beneficial owner of the property for federal income tax purposes.

Requirements for a QEAA.   Property is held in a QEAA only if all the following requirements are met.

• You have a written agreement.
• The time limits for identifying and transferring the property are met.
• The qualified indications of ownership of property are transferred to an EAT.

Written agreement.   Under a QEAA, you and the EAT must enter into a written agreement no later than 5 business days after the qualified indications of ownership (discussed later) are transferred to the EAT. The agreement must provide all the following.

• The EAT is holding the property for your benefit in order to facilitate an exchange under the like-kind exchange rules and Revenue Procedure 2000-37.
• You and the EAT agree to report the acquisition, holding, and disposition of the property on your federal income tax returns in a manner consistent with the agreement.
• The EAT will be treated as the beneficial owner of the property for all federal income tax purposes.

Property can be treated as being held in a QEAA even if the accounting, regulatory, or state, local, or foreign tax treatment of the arrangement between you and the EAT is different from the treatment required by the list above.

Bona fide intent.   When the qualified indications of ownership of the property are transferred to the EAT, it must be your bona fide intent that the property held by the EAT represents either replacement property or relinquished property in an exchange intended to qualify for nonrecognition of gain (in whole or in part) or loss under the like-kind exchange rules.

Time limits for identifying and transferring property.   Under a QEAA, the following time limits for identifying and transferring the property must be met.

1. No later than 45 days after the transfer of qualified indications of ownership of the replacement property to the EAT; you must identify the relinquished property in a manner consistent with the principles for deferred exchanges. See Identification requirement earlier under Deferred Exchange.
2. One of the following transfers must take place no later than 180 days after the transfer of qualified indications of ownership of the property to the EAT.
   1. The replacement property is transferred to you (either directly or indirectly through a qualified intermediary, defined earlier under Like-Kind Exchanges Using Qualified Intermediaries).
   2. The relinquished property is transferred to a person other than you or a disqualified person. A disqualified person is either of the following.
      1. Your agent at the time of the transaction. This includes a person who has been your employee, attorney, accountant, investment banker or broker, or real estate agent or broker within the 2-year period before the transfer of the relinquished property.
      2. A person who is related to you or your agent under the rules discussed in chapter 2 under Nondeductible Loss, substituting 10% for 50%.
3. The combined time period the relinquished property and replacement property are held in the QEAA cannot be longer than 180 days.

Exchange accommodation titleholder (EAT).   The EAT must meet all the following requirements.

• Hold qualified indications of ownership (defined next) at all times from the date of acquisition of the property until the property is transferred (as described in (2), earlier).
• Be someone other than you or a disqualified person (as defined in 2(b), earlier).
• Be subject to federal income tax. If the EAT is treated as a partnership or S corporation, more than 90% of its interests or stock must be owned by partners or shareholders who are subject to federal income tax.

Qualified indications of ownership.   Qualified indications of ownership are any of the following.

• Legal title to the property.
• Other indications of ownership of the property that are treated as beneficial ownership of the property under principles of commercial law (for example, a contract for deed).
• Interests in an entity that is disregarded as an entity separate from its owner for federal income tax purposes (for example, a single member limited liability company) and that holds either legal title to the property or other indications of ownership.

Other permissible arrangements.   Property will not fail to be treated as being held in a QEAA as a result of certain legal or contractual arrangements, regardless of whether the arrangements contain terms that typically would result from arm's-length bargaining between unrelated parties for those arrangements. For a list of those arrangements, see Revenue Procedure 2000-37 in Internal Revenue Bulletin No. 2000-40.

Partially Nontaxable Exchanges

If, in addition to like-kind property, you receive money or unlike property in an exchange on which you realize a gain, you have a partially nontaxable exchange. You are taxed on the gain you realize, but only to the extent of the money and the fair market value of the unlike property you receive.

A loss is never deductible in a nontaxable exchange in which you receive unlike property or cash.

Figuring taxable gain.   To figure the taxable gain, first determine the fair market value of any unlike property you receive and add it to any money you receive. Reduce that total by any exchange expenses (closing costs) you paid. The result is the maximum gain that can be taxed. Next, figure the gain on the whole exchange as discussed earlier under Gain or Loss From Sales and Exchanges. Your recognized (taxable) gain is the lesser of these two amounts.

Example.   You exchange real estate held for investment with an adjusted basis of $8,000 for other real estate you want to hold for investment. The fair market value of the real estate you receive is $10,000. You also receive $1,000 in cash. You paid $500 in exchange expenses. Although the total gain realized on the transaction is $2,500, only $500 ($1,000 cash received minus the $500 exchange expenses) is recognized (included in your income).

Assumption of liabilities.   If the other party to a nontaxable exchange assumes any of your liabilities, you will be treated as if you received cash in the amount of the liability. For more information on the assumption of liabilities, see section 357(d) of the Internal Revenue Code.

Example.   The facts are the same as in the previous example, except the property you give up is subject to a $3,000 mortgage for which you were personally liable. The other party in the trade has agreed to pay off the mortgage. Figure the gain realized as follows.

The realized gain is taxed only up to $3,500, the sum of the cash received ($1,000 - $500 exchange expenses) and the mortgage ($3,000).

Unlike property given up.   If, in addition to like-kind property, you give up unlike property, you must recognize gain or loss on the unlike property you give up. The gain or loss is equal to the difference between the fair market value of the unlike property and the adjusted basis of the unlike property.

Example.   You exchange stock and real estate you held for investment for real estate you also intend to hold for investment. The stock you transfer has a fair market value of $1,000 and an adjusted basis of $4,000. The real estate you exchange has a fair market value of $19,000 and an adjusted basis of $15,000. The real estate you receive has a fair market value of $20,000. You do not recognize gain on the exchange of the real estate because it qualifies as a nontaxable exchange. However, you must recognize (report on your return) a $3,000 loss on the stock because it is unlike property.

Basis of property received.   The total basis for all properties (other than money) you receive in a partially nontaxable exchange is the total adjusted basis of the properties you give up, with the following adjustments.

1. Add both the following amounts.
   1. Any additional costs you incur.
   2. Any gain you recognize on the exchange.
2. Subtract both the following amounts.
   1. Any money you receive.
   2. Any loss you recognize on the exchange.

Allocate this basis first to the unlike property, other than money, up to its fair market value on the date of the exchange. The rest is the basis of the like-kind property.

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